Browsing by Subject "Sojabohne"

Now showing 1 - 13 of 13
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    A study of integrated weed control strategies for establishing soybean (Glycine max L. MERR.) in the German production system
    (2017) Weber, Jonas Felix; Gerhards, Roland
    Soybean (Glycine max L. MERR.) has expanded to become one of the most traded agriculture products worldwide in recent decades. Europe is one of the primary importing regions; however, the dependence on soybean imports has been critically assessed by the public. To reduce the dependency on soybean imports, increased local soybean production should be favoured. In addition to environmental conditions, weeds are a major limiting factor for soybean yield under German climate conditions. Weeds can be successfully controlled with herbicides, although crop injury frequently occurs after application. Sensor-based screening would be helpful for a rapid evaluation of cultivar tolerance to herbicide application. Alternatively, mechanical weed control strategies can be applied. Since soybean production is currently introduced to the regional crop production, weed control efficiency of conventional mechanical tools (e.g., hoeing and harrowing) have to be evaluated. By using automatic guiding systems intra-row elements could be utilised to increase the weed control efficiency of mechanical hoeing. Other than that, agronomical practices such as the tillage system or cover crops influences the occurrence of weeds. The most common practise worldwide for soybean cultivation is the no-tillage system, which has not yet been investigated under local conditions. Therefore, different weed control strategies in soybean production were investigated according to the following major objectives of this thesis: - Detection of crop injury by herbicides using a chlorophyll fluorescence imaging sensor for different soybean cultivars. - Evaluation of the conventional mechanical strategies of hoeing and harrowing in soybean. - Examination of the weed control efficiency in inter- and intra-row areas using RTK-GNSS precision steering and an optical camera guiding system for mechanical weed control in soybean. - Evaluation of the efficiency of ‘tillage’, ‘reduced tillage’ and ‘no- tillage’ cultivation systems and the influence of cover crops on weed suppression in local soybean production. The Imaging-PAM-sensor based on chlorophyll fluorescence imaging was utilised to investigate the response of different soybean cultivars to the application of herbicides. The measurements indicated significant differences with respect to injury to the cultivars after herbicide application. Herbicides containing the active ingredient ‘metribuzin’ resulted in significant differences in the level of crop injury depending on the cultivar. The active ingredients ‘dimethenamid’ and ‘clomazone’ resulted in less injury, independent of the cultivar. The PAM-sensor was able to detect stress symptoms 3 to 7 days before visual symptoms appeared. An investigation of hoeing and harrowing, which are conventional mechanical techniques for weed control, showed 78% and 72% weed control efficiency, respectively. In further experiments, the results of precision steering systems using RTK-GNSS and an optical camera guiding system additionally equipped with intra-row elements (e.g., finger weeders) were compared with the results of conventional hoeing. Mechanical weed control using automatic steering technology and an intra-row element (finger weeder) reduced the weed density by 89% compared with 68% in the conventional hoeing system. With respect to crop yields, statistical benefits of precision steering were not observed. However, the driving speed could be increased from 4 km h−1 in the conventional hoeing system to 10 km h−1 using the automatic steering systems. In an additional experiment, two cover crops species, rye (Secale cereale L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), were grown for preventive weed control in soybean production. The cover crops were transformed into a mulch layer using a roller-crimper immediately before soybean was sown using a no-tillage technique. Conventional tillage was performed to compare the systems with respect to their weed control efficiency, crop development and soybean yield. The results showed that the no-tillage system had a greater effect on suppressing summer annual weed species (Chenopodium album (L.), Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. and Amaranthus retroflexus (L.)) than the tillage systems. Conventional tillage and reduced tillage showed increased suppression of the weed species Matricaria inodora (L.), Stellaria media (L.) Vill. and Sonchus arvensis (L.), which were present in the no-tillage system. However, in the conventional tillage and reduced tillage systems, an additional weed control treatment was necessary to suppress the summer annual weeds and ensure high yields. The cover crop rye resulted in weed control similar to that of barley in the no-tillage system. Despite the low weed density, the no-tillage system with a rolled cover crop showed a yield reduced of 47%, whereas the yield of the reduced tillage system was decrease by 23% compared with the conventional tillage system.
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    Analysis of phytotoxicity and plant growth stimulation by multi-walled carbon nanotubes
    (2016) Zaytseva, Olga; Neumann, Günter
    Nanotechnology is a rapidly expanding area of science and technology, which has gained a great interest due extraordinary properties of nanomaterials with numerous potential fields for practical application. Meanwhile, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are among the ten most-produced engineered nanomaterials worldwide with applications in automotive industry, building and construction, electronics, and many other industrial sectors, showing also a great potential for integration into environmental and agricultural applications. However, during the last decade it has been demonstrated that nanomaterials can exert significant and extremely variable effects also on living organisms. In higher plants, both, positive and negative responses on growth and development have been reported but the related mechanisms are still not entirely understood. This study presents a systematic assessment of CNT effects on representative crops under standardized conditions with special emphasis on interactions with plant nutrition. After the introductory background (Chapter 1), presenting a comprehensive literature review on carbon nanomaterials with special emphasis on plant responses, environmental and agricultural applications, Chapter 2 describes the impact of selected multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) on seed germination and early seedling development of different crops (soybean−Glycine max, maize−Zea mays, and common bean−Phaseolus vulgaris). In face of highly variable plant responses to CNT treatments reported in the literature, the study was designed as a systematic analysis under standardized growth conditions, dissecting the effects of one single type of MWCNTs, depending on plant species, MWCNT dosage, duration of exposure to MWCNT treatments, and plant-developmental stage, including imbibition, germination and seedling development. Short-term seed treatments (36 h) with MWCNTs reduced the speed of water uptake particularly by soybean seeds, associated with an increased germination percentage and reduced formation of abnormal seedlings. However, during later seedling development, negative effects on fine root production were recorded for all investigated plant species. Inhibition of root growth was associated with reduced metabolic activity of the root tissue and a reduction of nitrate uptake, which could be mainly attributed to the smaller root system. The results demonstrated that even under standardized growth conditions largely excluding external factors, plant responses to MWCNT exposure exhibit differences, depending on plant species but also on the physiological status and the developmental stage of individual plants. Soybean was selected as a model plant for further studies since both, positive and negative effects of the same dose of MWCNTs (1000 mg L-1) could be observed even in the same individual plants. Chapter 3 investigates effects of short-term soybean seed exposure (36 h) to MWCNTs on seedling development, depending on the nutrient availability of the substrate. At 8 DAS stunted growth and poor fine root production were first detectable in seedlings germinating on moist filter paper without additional nutrient supply. This effect was preceded by reduced metabolic activity of the seedling tissues detectable by vital staining already at 2 DAS. Root growth inhibition was a long-lasting effect, detectable in soil culture up to 38 DAS. More detailed investigations revealed zinc (Zn) deficiency as a major growth-limiting factor. The growth of affected soil-grown plants was recovered by foliar application of ZnSO4 or by cultivation in nutrient solution supplied with soluble ZnSO4. A more detailed investigation of the physiological mechanisms related with the inhibitory effects of MWCNTs on plant growth is presented in Chapter 4. Oxidative stress was identified as a major factor determining MWCNT-induced root growth inhibition in soybean, demonstrated by recovery of root development after external supplementation with antioxidants. Induction of oxidative stress by MWCNT application was detectable already after the 36 h imbibition period particularly in the tips of the radicle as indicated by accumulation of superoxide anions, reduced triphenyltetrazolium chloride vital staining, and induction of superoxide dismutase activity. The expression pattern of the oxidative stress indicators coincided with preferential accumulation of MWCNTs in the cells of the root tip and was reverted by external application of proline as antioxidant. MWCNT-induced plant damage could be reverted by external supplementation of micronutrients (Zn, Cu, Mn) as important cofactors for various enzymes involved in oxidative stress defense (SOD, biosynthesis of antioxidative phenolics). Accordingly, SOD activity increased in seedling roots after Zn supplementation. During germination, the CNT treatments inhibited particularly the Zn translocation from the cotyledons to the growing seedling, and CNTs exhibited a selective adsorption potential for Zn and Cu, which may be involved in internal immobilization of micronutrients. Therefore, this study demonstrated for the first time that phytotoxicity of CNTs is linked with disturbances of micronutrient homeostasis during seedling development. Implications for environmental phytotoxicity assessment of MWCNTs and their potential applications in agriculture are discussed in a final overview presented in Chapter 5.
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    Assessment of phenotypic, genomic and novel approaches for soybean breeding in Central Europe
    (2022) Zhu, Xintian; Würschum, Tobias
    Soybean is the economically most important leguminous crop worldwide and serves as a main source of plant protein for human nutrition and animal feed. Europe is dependent on plant protein imports and the EU protein self-sufficiency, which is an issue that has been on the political agenda for several decades, has recently received renewed interest. The protein imports are mainly in the form of soybean meal, and soybean therefore appears well-suited to mitigate the protein deficit in Europe. This, however, requires an improvement of soybean production as well as an expansion of soybean cultivation and thus breeding of new cultivars that combine agronomic performance with adaptation to the climatic conditions in Central Europe. The objective of this thesis was to characterize, evaluate and devise approaches that can improve the efficiency of soybean breeding. Breeding is essentially the generation of new genetic variation and the subsequent selection of superior genotypes as candidates for new cultivars. The process of selection can be supported by marker-assisted or genomic selection, which are both based on molecular markers. A first step towards the utilization of these approaches in breeding is the characterization of the genetic architecture underlying the target traits. In this study, we therefore performed QTL mapping for six target traits in a large population of 944 recombinant inbred lines from eight biparental families. The results showed that some major-effect QTL are present that could be utilized in marker-assisted selection, but in general the target traits are quantitatively inherited. For such traits controlled by numerous small-effect QTL, genomic selection has proven as a powerful tool to assist selection in breeding programs. We therefore also evaluated the genomic prediction accuracy and found this to be high and promising for the six traits of interest. In conclusion, these results illustrated the potential of genomic selection for soybean breeding programs, but a potential limitation of this approach are the costs required for genotyping with molecular markers. Phenomic selection is an alternative approach that uses near-infrared or other spectral data for prediction instead of the marker data used for its genomic counterpart. Here, we evaluated the phenomic predictive ability in soybean as well as in triticale and maize. Phenomic prediction based on near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) of seeds showed a comparable or even slightly higher predictive ability than genomic prediction. Collectively, our results illustrate the potential of phenomic selection for breeding of complex traits in soybean and other crops. The advantage of this approach is that NIRS data are often available anyhow and can be generated with much lower costs than the molecular marker data, also in high-throughput required to screen the large numbers of selection candidates in breeding programs. Soybean is a short-day plant originating from temperate China, and thus adaptation to the climatic conditions of Central Europe is a major breeding goal. In this study, we established a large diversity panel of 1,503 early-maturing soybeans, comprising of European breeding material and accessions from genebanks. This panel was evaluated in six environments, which revealed valuable genetic variation that can be introgressed into our breeding programs. In addition, we deciphered the genetic architecture of the adaptation traits flowering time and maturity. Taken together, the findings of this study show the potential of several phenotypic, genomic and novel approaches that can be integrated to improve the efficiency of soybean breeding and thus hold great promise to assist the expansion of soybean cultivation in Central Europe through breeding of adapted and agronomically improved cultivars.
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    Chances and limitations of European soybean production : market potential analysis
    (2016) Berschneider, Jana
    Overseas imports of soybeans from Brazil, the US and Argentina to Europe are increasing every year. Simultaneously, GMO farming in these countries is being expanded ever further. European farming of protein crops especially soybeans is being pushed by organizations and protein initiatives for economical and ecological reasons. In 2015 soybean acreages expanded drastically due to the additional Greening political measures which came into force. Therefore it is worth asking about the potential of a European non-GMO soybean market. The aim of this thesis was to work out the principal chances and limitations of a European soybean market under the current agricultural political conditions. Moreover, it should be discussed how many of the imported soybean commodities, of which more than 85% are from overseas, could be replaced by soybeans planted in Europe. In order to get to the bottom of the interests in this market from the perspective of the market actors, ten interviews were carried out. The result made it clear. European soybeans cannot yet compete with the overseas soybeans in terms of quantity (homogenous commodity lot sizes), price and even quality (mainly protein content). Thats why European non-GMO soybeans are not yet of high importance on the most important consumer market, which is the feed market, as large processors favor homogeneous lots and a reliably supply of commodities as to avoid volatile qualities in production. The greatest constraint comes from the limited availability of arable land in Europe as well as from a lack of early maturing soybeans that are well adapted to the European growing conditions. The restricted availability of arable land lead to a competitive situation with other cash crops such as corn, but according to the results of this thesis, soybean growing’s result in lower revenues and are therefore economical less competitive than corn. Thus, output (income) optimizing farmers under today’s conditions decide not to replace corn by soybeans. Furthermore, a limited practice experience in less experienced relatively new soybean growing regions slow down the development of a competitive European soybean market. Moreover, an insufficiently established non-GMO soybean industry hinder the market development due to difficulties of coexisting GMO and non-GMO commodities. Separated product flows in non-GMO processing plants, wholesale and collection points, are segments within the value chain which need to be further promoted for this market development. The zero tolerance regarding GMO traces in seed has been analyzed as a market barrier especially in the plant breeding industry. Thus, the thesis argued to establish a feasible GMO threshold value for seed as is already legal for food and feed.This is mentioned as a political constraint primarily, as well as too little effort towards specifically promoting a regional protein strategy, if more independence from overseas imports will be achieved. On the other hand, chances for the European soybean market are expected, as long as added value can be generated through special marketing programs, particularly trademarks. This means marketing products at higher prices according to regionality and non-GMO labelling. Therewith, a distribution of additional costs for testing and separation along the value chain could be achieved. Especially the Danube Soya Association is being described as a driving force. They mobilize market agents along the value-added chain, help to create uniform standards, test and monitors soybean commodities to be non-GMO and are finally labeled as such. In this way the non-GMO separation needs to be extended by European regulation to simplify the process to reach a European non-GMO soybean market. The consumers demand for local or organic products is constantly increasing. Consequently, non-GMO soybean components are being asked for in animal feed. A significant market opportunity for soybeans is that they are not really replaceable (in terms of quality) by any other protein crop without needing to reduce the economic efficiency of animal production. Therefore, the potential for demand is there principally. The analysis of the application of non-GMO feed shows that this is only of importance in smaller amounts in a few countries within Europe. Significant animal producing countries such as the Netherlands and Spain have no interest in non-GMO products. Thus, the intentions behind the European non-GMO soybean market, such as more independence from overseas imports, are likewise limited to specific regions of Europe. The European soybean production possibilities are economical and geographical limited and would not be able to do much more than satisfy certain consumer niches who are willing to pay the added value for non-GMO products.
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    Einfluss von Anbauverfahren und Umweltfaktoren auf Ertrag, Qualität und agronomische Eigenschaften von Soja (Glycine max L. Merrill)
    (2021) Sobko, Olena; Gruber, Sabine
    With a crude protein content of approximately 40% and a crude fat content of approximately 20% in the seeds, soybean (Glycine max L. Merril) is one of the worlds most important crops with a wide range of uses. The high-quality soybean protein is an important component of animal feed in dairy and meat production. Soybean oil is often used in human nutrition, and with increasing vegetarian or vegan diets, protein-rich foods made from soybean are in high demand. In practical farming, soybean is a beneficial crop in crop rotations because it can fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiosis with rhizobia, making the plant self-sufficient in nitrogen supply. Since soybean cultivation has no tradition in Germany, optimization of the cultivation technique is required. The present work is about the elaboration of efficient cultivation techniques for soybean in Germany. In three publications, based on three multi-year as well as multi-location and orthogonal field trials, the effects of sowing density and sowing system on yield, protein, and oil content as well as on agronomic properties of soybean are investigated in several varieties from different maturity groups. In addition, the effects of temperature, precipitation and solar radiation on yield, oil content, and protein content have been investigated to identify potential locations for specific production priorities. In the first publication (published in Agronomy Journal MDPI), the results from trials over two years and two locations in southern Germany with four soybean varieties of different maturity groups (00, 000) and growth types with either drill seeding (row spacing 14 cm) or precision seeding (row spacing 28 cm) are presented. To answer the question of which seeding method is more efficient, the following characteristics have been investigated, namely seed yield and yield structure, protein and oil content, LAI, plant height, height of the first pod set, lodging, and nodule numbers. The sowing system did not significantly affect the tested traits, and there was little difference in yield and qualities (seed yield: 3.6 t ha-1 DM, protein content: 40.9 % DM, oil content: 18.8 % DM for drill seeding; seed yield: 3.8 t ha-1 DM, protein content: 40.1 % DM, oil content: 19.1 % DM for precision seeding). These results are very helpful for soybean producers, because they do not need to invest in new sowing technique but can sow with sowing machines which are already available on the farm. The second publication (published in Plant, Soil and Environment) is about the effects of sowing density of soybean with four varieties of maturity groups 00 and 000. Four sowing densities (30, 50, 70, and 90 seeds m-2) were tested over two years and two locations in southern Germany. The lowest seed yield (3.2 t ha-1 DM was obtained at a sowing density of 30 seeds m-2 and the highest at 90 seeds m-2 (4.4 t ha-1 DM). The 00 varieties (3.6 t ha-1 DM) were higher yielding than the 000 varieties (3.4 t ha-1 DM). Sowing density did not affect seed quality characteristics. Plants were more susceptible to lodging with increasing sowing density. The lowest pod set was 4 cm higher at a sowing density of 90 seeds m-2 (13.4 cm) than at 30 seeds m-2 (9.4 cm). Increasing sowing density could reduce yield losses due to threshing because the height of the first pod set was increased at high sowing densities. Consequently, the optimum soybean seed rate would be between 50 and 70 seeds m-2 for 00 and 000 varieties at the tested locations and similar regions in Germany. In the third publication (published in Agronomy Journal MDPI), the influences of environmental factors on yield, protein and oil content, and protein and oil yield of soybean in Germany have been investigated. In the two-year field trials, 13 soybean varieties from maturity groups 00 and 000 were tested at several locations across Germany (four in 2016 and five in 2017). The 000 varieties were less sensitive to environmental factors compared to the 00 varieties. Regardless of maturity group, high solar radiation and appropriate precipitation tended to increase seed yields (r seed yield / solar radiation = 0.32 and r seed yield / solar radiation = 0.33). High temperatures at maturity reduced the productivity but provided slightly higher protein contents in 000 varieties (r protein content / CHU at maturity = 0.23). The locations that are not at risk for water stress would be suitable for soybean production if protein or oil yield is the primary concern. Overall, this study indicates that a sowing density of 50-70 seeds m-2 in combination with varieties of appropriate maturity groups could promote soybean cultivation in Germany. In dry locations, a lower sowing density is advisable in contrast to locations with more precipitation. Additional costs for the adaptation of technical equipment would not be incurred, because both drill seeding and precision seeding can be applied. By matching the direction of use (protein and/or oil production) of soybean to the climatic conditions of specific regions, soybeans for food and feed can be produced in Germany with sufficient traceability for quality and food safety. Climate warming offers opportunities to extend soybean production in Germany. This thesis provides results from which recommendations can be derived that are immediately applicable in agricultural practice.
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    Etablierung eines Wirts-induzierten RNAi-Systems für die Kontrolle des Asiatischen Sojabohnenrostes Phakopsora pachyrhizi
    (2015) Müller, Manuel; Vögele, Ralf
    Phakopsora pachyrhizi, the causal agent of Asian Soybean Rust is a devastating plant pathogen that can cause significant yield losses in soybean production. So far, Phakopsora pachyrhizi is controlled by the use of fungicides and cultivation practices. A future perspective for the control of obligate biotrophic pathogens such as Phakopsora pachyrhizi, is Host-induced Gene Silencing (HIGS), which utilizes the naturally occuring phenomenon of RNA-interference (RNAi). The basic principle of HIGS is the induction of RNAi targeted against RNA of the fungal pathogen by means of transgenic expression of double stranded RNA (dsRNA) in the host plant. HIGS can be performed by either generating stable transgenic plants or using transient expression systems mainly based on recombinant viral vector systems. Recently, the basic principle of HIGS has been demonstrated in a variety of obligate biotrophic fungal pathogens including the powdery mildew fungus Blumeria graminis or the cereal rusts Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici and Puccinia triticina. Furthermore, work on different Fusarium spp. clearly indicates that the use of HIGS can be transferred to pertotrophic pathogens. Althought there is remarkable progress in utilizing HIGS in cereal rusts, to date, no such system has been reported for legume rusts. Thus, the work presented was focused on the development and testing of a HIGS system for the Asian Soybean Rust Phakopsora pachyrhizi. An initial set of ten target genes, presumably essential for signaling, nutrient uptake and host-pathogen interaction, was selected from a database reflecting the haustorial transcriptome of Phakopsora pachyrhizi. Expression of dsRNA complementary to the selected target genes was done using a viral vector system based on the Bean Pod Mottle Virus (BPMV). As an alternative method the use of agroinfiltration for the expression of hairpin RNA (hpRNA) was examined. By using the viral vector system silencing effects were observed for the three target genes Pp_contig01251, Pp_contig05320, and Pp_contig3015. Furthermore, the silencing of Pp_contig05320 resulted in inhibited growth of Phakopsora pachyrhizi as indicated by a reduced number of uredia. The use of agroinfiltration for the expression of hpRNA was not successful. Infiltration of soybean using a syringe resulted in deformation and necrosis of the infiltrated leaf areas. Although the expression of hpRNA could not be realized, the transient transformation of Glycine max via the use of agroinfiltration was demonstrated using a marker gene construct. Concerning the analysis of silencing effects via the use of RT-qPCR, the expression stability of 15 genes from Phakopsora pachyrhizi and 10 genes from Glycine max was analyzed to identify stably expressed reference genes. These studies resulted in the identification of several reference genes, suitable for the normalization of expression data collected under different experimental conditions. The results from this work provide a foundation for further examinations and experiments. Open questions especially concern the factors delimiting a gene as a suitable target gene for HIGS and the molecular mechanism behind the uptake and the translocation of silencing signals in Phakopsora pachyrhizi. Answering these questions will promote the establishment of HIGS as a promising perspective for modern plant protection.
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    Exploring and modelling the influence of spectral light composition on soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.)
    (2019) Hitz, Tina; Graeff-Hönninger, Simone
    The development of soybean cultivars for the climatic conditions in Europe is an urgent need in order to increase the European production and to decrease the dependence of imported soybean. A speed breeding system can accelerate the process of developing new cultivars by growing more generations per season in climate chambers. The project MoLED-Plant aimed towards the development of a speed breeding system for soybean under LED lighting. The major objectives of this thesis were to: (i) construct a three dimensional model of an LED chamber to simulate micro-light climate, (ii) develop a functional-structural plant (FSP) model of soybean and derive a blue photon flux density (BPFD) response curve from simulations, (iii) apply the FSP model with the integrated response curve for spectral optimization, (iv) explore the influence of BPFD under constant photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), and (v) disentangle the influence of red to far-red ratio (R:FR) and PPFD on the shade avoidance response (SAR). The objectives were fulfilled with a combination of FSP modelling in the Growth Grammar-related Interactive Modelling Platform (GroIMP) and plant experiments under multiple spectra in LED chambers. The presented LED chamber model was the first three dimensional environment, which was developed for spectral optimizations in indoor farming using FSP modeling. Measurements performed with a spectrometer in multiple heights and orientations were compared to simulations recorded with a virtual sensor at the same locations. The model was evaluated as a tool for assessment of spectral light heterogeneity under an alternative placement of the LED modules. Applying the model can assist in choosing the best chamber design and placements of LEDs to assure homogeneous light conditions. Subsequently, static soybean plants were incorporated into the chamber model. Comparison of light simulations and measurements from below the soybean canopy in four reconstructed scenarios assured a good simulation of micro-light climate. The model was applied to simulate the effect of an increased plant density in an experiment in the chamber. The simulations of light homogeneity in the experimental setup can assist in choosing the optimal design. The developed dynamic FSP model of soybean within the chamber model represents the first FSP model with an integrated response to BPFD. The soybean model was calibrated with data from BPFD experiments. From simulations, a common response curve of internode elongation to the perceived BPFD was derived for the second and third internode. The response curve was integrated in the model and was applied for spectral optimization in a chamber scenario with an alternative high reflective bottom material. The soybean response to BPFD under constant PPFD and the influence of R:FR and PPFD on SAR was explored by designing specific spectra from LEDs. Soybean experiments were performed under six levels of BPFD (60-310 µmol m-2 s-1) and constant PPFD (400 µmol m-2 s-1). Plant height and biomass decreased, leaf mass ratio increased and the ratio of stem biomass (internode plus petiole) translocated to the internode decreased under high BPFD. Three soybean cultivars were grown under nine light treatments to disentangle the effect of R:FR and PPFD. Internode elongation responded mainly to low PPFD with an additive effect from low R:FR, whereas petiole elongation was influenced to a great extent by low R:FR. In the context of SAR, petiole elongation can be seen as the main response to the threat of shade (high PPFD and low R:FR) and both petiole and internode elongation as the response to true shade (low PPFD and low R:FR). This thesis showed how PPFD, BPFD and R:FR work both independently, antagonistically and synergistically on the physiology and morphology of soybean. The increased insight in these responses can e.g. support crop breeding and spectral optimization in indoor farming. Furthermore, interesting and important objectives for future research were identified. These experiments should include physiological measurements for a deeper understanding of interactions and underlying mechanisms. Spectral optimization of indoor farming depends on the purpose of the production. For instance, a high BPFD of 260 µmol m-2 s-1 was optimal for speed breeding, whereas an intermediate BPFD would be preferable to increase biomass. Comprehensive investigation of spectral influence on plant physiology and morphology is necessary to fully utilize the spectral flexibility of LED lighting. The developed FSP model of soybean in a virtual LED chamber represents an important step towards utilizing the advantages of FSP modelling by simulation of a wide variety of scenarios. The model can be adjusted or extended depending on the purpose of the model. It can be calibrated for other crop species and the setting of the chamber dimensions can be changed.
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    From greenhouse to field practice : herbicide resistance detection using chlorophyll-fluorescence-imaging technology
    (2017) Wang, Pei; Gerhards, Roland
    All over the world, herbicide resistance has developed to one of the most important barriers in weed control, making the implementation of the weed control strategy more complicated. There is an intense need for a rapid, cheap and reliable method to conduct in field detection of herbicide resistant weed populations. In the current thesis with the use of chlorophyll fluorescence imaging technology, such a method is implemented and tested in field conditions. A series of experiments were designed and carried out. The data gathered from these experiments were compiled under three paper articles. Paper 1. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to verify if the parameter, Maximal Photosystem II Quantum Yield (Fv/Fm), could possibly indicate the herbicide efficacy. The chlorophyll-fluorescence-imaging sensor, Weed PAM®, was selected for the measurements. In the first part it was investigated if the Fv/Fm value could differentiate between herbicide sensitive and resistant plants. In the second part two important abiotic stress factors were tested if they affected the Fv/Fm value. I) Six herbicides were tested on herbicide sensitive and resistant Alopecurus myosuroides populations; II) Water shortage and nitrogen deficiency were applied on a herbicide sensitive population to observe their influence on the plants. The sensitive plants presented significantly lower Fv/Fm values than the resistant plants 3 days after treatment (DAT) for the ALS and ACCase inhibitors. On the same day, and for the same treatments the Fv/Fm values of the resistant plants were not affected and similar to the control. Appling a PS II inhibitor reduced the Fv/Fm values of both sensitive and resistant plants rapidly. Yet, sensitive and resistant plants could clearly be separated on 4 DAT based on the different Fv/Fm values. On the other hand, nitrogen deficiency did not influence the photosystem II measurements. Water shortage reduced rapidly the Fv/Fm value of the plants seven days after the application, yet at this point plant symptoms included the death of the plants. According to this experiment, the Weed PAM® sensor has proved its capability to identify the sensitive and resistant A. myosuroides populations shortly after the herbicide application. Paper 2. A verification of the above results was made under field conditions for different A. myosuroides populations and different locations. On the first part 50 populations in total including both sensitive and herbicide resistant populations were tested. The second part field experiments were conducted in ten locations around Germany over two years with the local field population mix. It was investigated if the Weed PAM® sensor could separate between herbicide sensitive and resistant A. myosuroides populations 5 DAT. The different populations were sown in a winter wheat field. Two ACCase- and three ALS- inhibitors were applied. In all herbicide treatments, Fv/Fm values of A. myosuroides were significantly lower than the untreated plants at the 5 DAT. For each location, measurements were conducted at 5 DAT. A visual measurement, to verify the result, was carried out at 21 DAT. In both cases, 95% of the plants were correctly identified as sensitive or resistant. This demonstrated the ability of the Weed PAM® sensor to conduct in field real time detection of herbicide resistant A. myosuroides populations shortly after treatment. Paper 3. Greenhouse and field experiments were carried out to investigate if the chlorophyll fluorescence of soybean plants was altered, under herbicide stress. Herbicide combinations including inhibitors of PS II, DOXP synthase, cell division and microtubule assembly were selected for different pre-emergence treatments. Herbicide combinations including inhibitors of PS II, ALS and ACCase were applied in post-emergence treatments. Chlorophyll fluorescence was measured from the emergence of soybeans until the three/four-leaf stage. Furthermore the stress effect of the different treatments on the soybean plants was determined by measuring their dry biomass. In the greenhouse, post-emergence treatments with ALS and ACCase inhibitors did not seem to induce stress on the soybean plants. As expected, it originally demonstrated low Fv/Fm values when stressed by PS II inhibitors. But the PS II system recovered soon, one week after emergence. Stress induced by other pre-emergence herbicides occurred one week after emergence and lasted longer than the stress induced by the PS II inhibitors. Dry biomass collaborated with the sensor result. Based on the current thesis, the Weed PAM® system can be an important tool in the identification of herbicide resistant weed populations, in a timely manner. It has proven its capabilities both in A. myosuroides as a weed and in soybean plants. This technology will help farmers to take more suitable weed control strategies, as well as less economic and environmental risks.
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    Nutrient seed priming improves abiotic stress tolerance in Zea mays L. and Glycine max L.
    (2014) Imran, Muhammad; Neumann, Günter
    Seed reserves are the primary source of mineral nutrients for early seedling development. ?Nutrient seed priming? is a technique in which seeds are soaked in nutrient solution and subsequently dried back to initial moisture content for storage. It is an efficient approach to increase seed nutrient contents along with priming effects to improve seed quality, germination speed and seedling establishment. Various abiotic stresses, such as sub-optimal temperature, drought, submergence and soil pH extremes can seriously affect seedling establishment and nutrient acquisition at early growth stages. This thesis focused on the role and contribution of nutrient seed priming in plant growth and nutritional status in maize and soybean under conditions of limited nutrient availability and low root-zone temperature. Protocols for nutrient seed priming with Zn, Mn, Zn+Mn, B and P were optimised for application in maize and soybean seeds (B and P priming in maize only). Optimum priming durations of 24 h (maize) and 12 h (soybean) were identified for both plant species but in instead of submerging seeds in priming solutions slow imbibition between filter papers was essential for soybean to minimise development of abnormal seedlings to avoid imbibition damage. Nutrient concentrations were calculated according to water uptake to double the natural seed reserves of the respective micronutrients and 50% increase in phosphorus. However, final uptake of the micronutrients was generally much higher (+500-1000%) while it was lower for P (+20%). In case of soybean this could be attributed to a high Zn and Mn binding capacity of the seed coat, which adsorbed up to 60% of the primed nutrients. Particularly, Zn and Zn+Mn priming stimulated plant growth in hydroponic culture systems and to a lower extent also on a soil with low availability of P, Zn and Fe. This was associated with a high shoot translocation of the primed nutrients (Zn and Mn), which was most expressed in the hydroponic culture system. Combined priming treatments with Zn and Mn were usually less effective than Zn priming alone, suggesting an antagonistic interaction. By contrast, mobility of primed B was extremely low and B priming was completely ineffective. In soil culture also P priming moderately increased shoot biomass production by 10-20 %. However the efficiency of P priming was largely limited by the high P demand of the plants. Low root zone temperature (RZT) at early spring is a limiting factor for maize production in Central and Northern Europe. Nutrient acquisition, nutrient uptake and particularly root growth are severely affected at low RZT and the consequences of these growth depressions are often not completely compensated until final harvest. Model experiments in hydroponics and soil culture revealed that maize nutrient seed priming with Zn, Mn and Fe is a promising strategy to diminish the deficiency of specific nutrients, such as Zn, Mn and also P and to maintain plant growth under low RZT stress. This was mainly attributed to significantly increased root growth and particularly fine root production in plants grown from nutrient-primed seeds. Improved net photosynthesis of primed plants was mainly related with increased leaf area and preliminary results suggest a higher tolerance to oxidative damage due to increased production of protective phenolics. Two independent field experiments under conditions of suboptimal temperatures during germination and early growth revealed an increase in grain yield of 10 ? 15 % for plants derived from Zn+Mn and Fe primed seeds. This finding demonstrates long-lasting persistence of priming effects. The molecular and physiological mechanisms behind require further investigation.
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    Pflanzenbauliche Untersuchungen zum ökologischen Anbau von Körnerleguminosen an sommertrockenen Standorten Südwestdeutschlands
    (2007) Poetsch, Jens; Claupein, Wilhelm
    Grain legumes, as nitrogen fixing crop, protein rich animal feed and marketable product are of great importance for organic agriculture. Due to staged abolition of the possibility to add non-organic products in organic animal feeding, the EU?s demand for organically produced protein feed is further increasing. Field bean (Vicia faba) and field pea (Pisum sativum) are large-scale crops but feature a limited feeding value. Lupin species (Lupinus spp.) excel by protein contents of up to 40% in the seed and higher protein value. At warmth favoured locations in southwestern Germany the valuable soybean (Glycine max) can be grown successfully and obtain above-average proceeds in natural food industry. Constraints of yield stability of grain legumes result amongst other things from frequently high weed infestation in organic cropping systems and suboptimal water supply at summer-dry locations. For lupins, moreover, particular soil requirements and the seed-borne fungal disease anthracnosis are problematic. Nitrogen residues after harvest are relevant for subsequent crop as well as groundwater protection. The presented work aimed at defining preconditions and developing cropping strategies to optimise yield stability and level of organically grown grain legumes with a main focus on summer-dry locations, to increase diversity of cultivatable crops and provide information on disposition of nitrogen residues. For this purpose from 2003 to 2005 trials at several locations as well as in greenhouse and laboratory were accomplished. Field trials on organic weed control in soybean as well as white and narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus albus und L. angustifolius) were conducted at organically managed commercial sites in the upper rhine valley. At the same time agronomic measures for optimisation of competitiveness and machinery implementation were varied. Early high soil coverage and crop height contributed considerably to grain legumes? competitiveness. Delayed sowing at elevated temperatures supported rapid juvenile development and allowed for pre-sowing weed control. At optimum sowing date these effects may be used without yield depression or maturity problems. Reduced row distance was beneficial for optimum space utilisation and early crop closure, but effectiveness of mechanical means was highest at high row distance and large areal proportion for interrow cultivation. As an optimum compromise for grain legumes row distances of 30 - 35 cm are recommended. Optimum impact of mechanical means against weeds was achieved by combining interrow cultivation with harrow or fingerweeder. Forgoing interrow cultivation may be considered in strongly competitive crops like field bean. Lupin species appeared rather poor in competitiveness compared to other crops. Field trials on effects of cultivar and cropping strategy on overwintering and yield performance of autumn-sown field bean, field pea and white lupin were conducted at three locations. Summer drought caused substantial yield advantages of autumn-sown compared to spring-sown cultivars due to superior water supply at earlier flowering. With sufficient water supply a head start was not yield effective. Differing coincidence with pests and diseases could account for advantages (head start on aphid infestation) or disadvantages (fungal infections during winter period) of autumn-sown cultivars. Overwintering was excellent for winter field bean and good for winter field pea. For winter white lupin further trials are required. Temperatures down to -12°C were well endured by all of the three crops. The most important cropping parameter was the sowing date. Winter field bean permitted a relatively wide sowing window. Winter white lupin required strong development before winter and preferably early sowing. Sowing date of winter field pea presented an optimisation problem, because sowing too early leads to overdevelopment and reduced cold-tolerance, while sowing too late may reduce yield potential. Optimum sowing dates for southwestern Germany according to experimental results are in the range of early September (winter white lupin), mid-October (winter field bean) and late October (winter field pea). Water use efficiency may gain significantly in importance in the future. A two-year trial on cultivation prospects and yield performance of the notably drought tolerant chickpea (Cicer arietinum) in the upper rhine valley resulted in successful crop development, but problems with empty pods and inadequate grain quality. Further trials are considered promising. A field trial with white and narrow-leafed lupin confirmed that anthracnosis of lupin spreads less rapidly and yield effectively at summer-dry locations, and narrow-leafed lupin frequently stays unaffected. Laboratory studies for optimising detection methodology of the causative organism Colletotrichum lupini showed advantages of using sectioned petri dishes (quad plates), which confined propagation of disturbing organisms. A trial on seed storage under different temperatures, seed moisture contents and CO2-atmosphere produced no distinct treatment effect, but could confirm the general decrease of seed infection by storage. According to literature hot air (approx. 4 days at 65°C) also reduces seed infection effectively. Thus, storage or hot air treatment of basic seed and propagation at summer-dry locations appear as a viable over-all strategy. Difficult soil requirements of white and narrow-leafed lupin were studied by a pot trial as well as a comprehensive literature analysis. It is concluded that the so-called lime chlorosis is caused by HCO3--induced inactivation of physiologically relevant Fe(II) in the plant. Accumulation of HCO3- is basically caused by insufficient soil aeration and promoted by the presence of lime in the clay fraction. Furthermore, especially in narrow-leafed lupin, disturbances of root development are caused by high Ca-content or high and at the same time strongly buffered pH of soil solution. These conditions are often but not necessarily caused by lime. Analyses of harvest residues and soil were consulted for estimation of nitrogen dynamics. Immobilisation due to degradation of residues with high C:N ratio as well as uptake by catch crops contributed substantially to nitrogen conservation. Risk of leaching is predominantly site dependent. The over-all nitrogen balance of grain legumes when exporting the seed may be low or even negative. In conclusion, results of the presented work indicate that site adapted cropping systems with agronomic measures in the areas of crop rotation, choice of cultivar, sowing date or space allocation can still contribute considerably to yield stability in organic cultivation of grain legumes.
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    Phenotypic and genomics-assisted breeding of soybean for Central Europe : from environmental adaptation to tofu traits
    (2022) Kurasch, Alena; Würschum, Tobias
    Soybean (Glycine max Merr.) is one of the major crops in the world providing an important source of protein and oil for food and feed; however it is still a minor crop in Central Europe. Soybean cultivation can play an important role in a more sustainable agricultural system by increasing local and regional protein production in Europe. The demand for locally produced soybean products is still growing in Europe. The key for a successful establishment of soybean cultivation in Europe is adaptation of soybean varieties to the Central European growing conditions. For the latitudinal adaptation to long-day conditions in Central to Northern Europe, an adapted early flowering and maturity time is of crucial importance for a profitable cultivation. The key traits flowering and maturity are quantitatively inherited and mainly affected by photoperiod responsiveness and temperature sensitivity. The most important loci for an early flowering and maturity are E1-E4 and the various allelic combinations condition soybean flowering and maturity time and therefore strongly contribute to the wide adaptability (Jiang et al., 2014; Tsubokura et al., 2014; M. Xu et al., 2013). Besides the main usage as protein source for animal feeding, soybean is also a very valuable source for human consumption. Tofu is enjoying ever greater popularity in Europe, as it is one of the best sources of plant protein with additional health benefits, rich in essential amino acids, beneficial lipids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as other bioactive compounds, such as isoflavones, soyasaponin, and others, (Lima et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018). Thus, plant breeding has to provide not only well-adapted varieties with good agronomic and quality properties, but also provide varieties well-suited to the further processing into soymilk and tofu. Therefore, a good knowledge about the breeding target, how to assess it and how it is inherited is crucial. The conducted studies covered a broad range of aspects relevant to improve a soybean breeding program. By combining environmental analysis, E-gene analysis, genomic approaches (QTL mapping and genomic prediction), and tofu phenotyping, breeder decisions become more accurate and targeted in the way of selection thereby increasing the genetic gain. In addition, combining the results of the different aspects helps to optimize the resources of a breeding program. Increasing the knowledge about the different aspects from environment to tofu QTL enables a breeder to be more precise and focused. But the more targeted and specific, the more complex a breeding program gets, which requires adequate tools to handle all the different information in a meaningful and efficient way to enable a quick and precise breeding decision.
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    Plant protein gels as binders in meat product analogues
    (2023) Herz, Eva Maria; Weiss, Jochen
    In response to concerns about the environmental, ethical, and health impacts of meat consumption, plant-based meat analogues have become an important development in the food industry. To obtain prodcts with similar texture and nutritional properties, three major components of meat products (fibrous meat particles, adipose tissue, and myofibrillar meat proteins) need to be replicated. Furthermore, different binding mechanisms, such as heat, acid, and enzyme induction, and drying, are used to create coherent matrices for plant-based meat analogues. In Chapter 2, the study focuses on the use of soy protein gels as binders, with a particular emphasis on a combination of transglutaminase (TG) induced gels. The results indicate that TG-induced soy protein gels offer promising binding strength for meat analogues. Chapter 3 explores a combination of TG and slowly acidifying glucono-delta-lactone (GDL) as a binder, showing that this approach results in acidic gels with enhanced textural properties, making it suitable for acidic meat analogue products like fermented sausages. Chapter 4 applies previously studied soy protein gels as binders for sausage analogues. The research indicates that the choice of binder content influences the cohesiveness and hardness of the sausage analogues, with drying having a significant impact on hardness. In Chapter 5, hydrated gluten is used as a binder, leading to increased cohesiveness and springiness with rising binder content. It emphasizes the importance of adhesive properties between the binder and other particles in achieving desirable meat analogue texture. Overall, the thesis underscores that plant protein suspensions can serve as effective binders for meat analogue products, provided they exhibit both sufficient hardening through network formation and adhesive properties to ensure cohesiveness. It also discusses various formulation and process-based approaches to modulate the texture of meat analogue products.
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    Species of the Diaporthe/Phomopsis Complex (DPC) in European soybean and establishment of quadruplex Real-Time PCR for diagnosis
    (2022) Hosseini, Behnoush; Vögele, Ralf
    Diaporthe seed decay is among the most disruptive soybean diseases around the world, which cause significant yield losses and affect soybean quality. Different Diaporthe species cause this disease, while Diaporthe longicolla is considered the main causal agent. The species of this fungal complex (genus Diaporthe is also called the Diaporthe/Phomopsis Complex / DPC) have to be accurately identified for epidemiological studies of the disease and for optimal control measures. To identify the major causal agents of seed decay in Europe, DPC-damaged soybean seeds of various cultivars, that were collected from different fields in Germany, France, and Austria were tested by seed plating. 32 Diaporthe isolates could be obtained. The isolates were morphologically identified by the colors and shape of the colony, conidia dimensions, and by whether pycnidia with α- and/or β-conidia or perithecia with ascospores are formed. To corroborate morphological identification, sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS), translation elongation factor 1-α (TEF1), and beta-tubulin (TUB) sequences were obtained. From the results of both morphological and molecular analyses it became clear that all isolates belong to one of the four species D. longicolla, D. caulivora, D. eres, and D. novem. The pathogenicity of all strains on soybean was tested. Molecular phylogenies were calculated and based on the above results updated species descriptions were created. This study identified these four species as the main Diaporthe pathogens for soybean in central Europe. A sensitive and accurate method for quick detection of these pathogens was developed based on multiplex real-time PCR. Specific TaqMan primer-probe sets for the four species were designed based on TEF1 sequences. The primer-probe sets were tested for specificity and efficiency using PCR products and genomic DNA from the four Diaporthe species and several other soybean pathogens. These primer-probe sets reliably distinguish the different species and they can be used to detect them in the same reaction by quadruplex real-time PCR. DNA from different soybean plant materials including healthy and infected seeds or seed coats, stems, and leaves was used to test the quadruplex real-time PCR assay. Application of the assay was extended to quantify the pathogens. Standard curves for the four species were created from serial dilutions of genomic DNA diluted with DNA from soybean tissue. An additional standard curve was created from serial dilutions of soybean DNA diluted with ddH2O. To gain the ratio of fungal DNA per plant DNA (ng/ng), DNA samples from soybean tissues can now be examined in the new assay and a parallel SYBR® Green-based real-time PCR. The assay was first applied to six soybean seed lots with putative Diaporthe contamination. In all seed lots seeds contaminated with Diaporthe species and even some seeds infected with more than one Diaporthe species were found, while other seeds were free of the pathogens. The load of fungal biomass varies strongly between individual seeds.