Browsing by Subject "Southeast Asia"

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    Effects of agricultural commercialization on land use and pest management of smallholder upland farms in Thailand
    (2016) Grovermann, Suthathip; Berger, Thomas
    Over recent years, economic development, policy changes, new technologies and population growth have been motivating farmers in Thailand to intensify and commercialize their production activities. As part of this agricultural commercialization and intensification process, Thai upland farmers have adapted their farming practices to increase crop production and productivity levels. This thesis clearly demonstrates that there is a positive relationship between land use intensification/commercialization and the use of chemical-based pest management activities, i.e. farmers have increasingly relied on the use of chemicals for the protection of their crops. As part of the agricultural intensification and commercialization process, concerns about the potentially negative impact of pesticide use is often downplayed, while the benefits of pesticide use in terms of improved crop returns ignore the indirect costs they also incur. This has also led to a situation in which local farmers do not always use pesticides in an appropriate way; they tend to overuse and misuse the chemicals, to avoid losses among their high-value crops. Due to farmers’ limited awareness of and lack of protection against the potential dangers inherent in chemical pesticide use, they still use pesticides which contain cheap compounds such as the herbicides Paraquat and Glyphosate. The application of these chemicals is restricted in a number of other countries, but these represent two of the three most commonly used pesticides in the study area. The survey described here sought to provide evidence that agricultural commercialization in Thailand over recent years has led to a reduction in the variety of pest management practices applied, and that many Thai farmers have become completely dependent on the use of agrochemicals, expecting that this approach will fully prevent any losses in crop yields. In this context, it can be observed that farmers have become locked into using chemical pest control methods, creating a situation in which attempting to control one risk through the increasingly heavy and exclusive use of pesticides, has led to a number of other, new risks developing. This research also reveals that market prices, pests and diseases have become the dominant risks affecting farm performance within the Thai commercial farm sector, while among Thai subsistence farmers the loss of family labor is of key concern. The farmers in the study area have a variety of attitudes towards risk, and differences in expected rates of return influence the types of risk protection tools used. The findings show that agricultural commercialization is associated with a rapid adoption of synthetic pesticides and an exponential growth in the quantity of pesticides applied per hectare. As the risk management strategies used by commercial farmers are mostly aimed at crop protection, they use large quantities of synthetic pesticides to manage crop pests and diseases. The present research also finds that the effectiveness of pesticide use increases significantly as levels of commercialization increase. Pesticide use is perceived as increasingly useful in this process, being considered an essential factor for raising agricultural output and farm income. However, there is a need to pay more attention to the potentially adverse effects of pesticide use on human health and the environment and to improve producers’ level of understanding of the risks involved in pesticide use, which will help them make better decisions regarding the risks and consequences involved. A number of studies have suggested that pesticide regulations in Thailand should be better enforced, that consumer demand for certified products should be encouraged, and that training on food safety should be offered to farmers. The Thai government has reacted to these calls by introducing policies and projects aimed at the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices; however, these policies have not been promoted effectively, and so have not fixed the core problem. The Q-GAP program is a good example of this. This thesis reveals that Thai upland farmers still do not understand the logic behind the program introduced, and so lack any motivation to follow sustainable farming practices. This situation is made worse by the lack of any effective program implementation and follow-up activities, such as farm auditing. The Q-GAP program has been implemented with a strong focus on farm auditing and residue testing, and little focus on the positive consequences of a reduction in pesticide use levels. The program also does not provide farmers with suitable alternatives to manage their pest problems. Certified farmers continue to almost entirely depend on synthetic pest control. In principle, under the program farmers are encouraged to practice integrated pest management (IPM) methods in order to achieve Q-GAP certification. But it was found that a considerable number of farmers were not familiar with the term IPM and have a limited understanding of the approach. IPM offers alternative pest management methods to farmers and also takes into account traditional pest control methods, not just the use of pesticides. Therefore it could have a positive role to play in helping to reduce pesticide use. However, in reality, the promotion of integrated pest management methods is not enough in isolation. As this thesis shows by means of an ex-ante assessment of pesticide use reduction strategies with the MPMAS simulation package, the use of a combination of measures, such as the promotion of IPM through financial adoption incentives combined with the introduction of a sizeable sales tax on pesticides, could lead to a very substantial reduction in pesticide use – by up to 34% on current levels, without adversely effecting general farm income levels. Thus, policymakers should promote alternative pesticide use reduction strategies by combining pesticide taxation with the introduction of integrated pest management methods, the application of a price premium on safe agricultural produce or the introduction of subsidies for bio-pesticides. Furthermore, there is a need to raise farmers awareness about pesticide risks and to increase investment in the diffusion of integrated pest management practices. Thai upland farmers might be willing to introduce more sustainable agricultural methods if they were to fully understand the consequences of pesticide use on their health and the environment, as well as know more about the biology, behaviors and physiology of the pests themselves. Building knowledge is critical in this regard. To achieve this, there needs to be more interaction between researchers, extension workers and farmers, plus more policy options introduced to support farmers in their transition to a more market-oriented production environment.
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    Simulating the impact of land use change on ecosystem functions in data-limited watersheds of Mountainous Mainland Southeast Asia
    (2015) Lippe, Melvin; Cadisch, Georg
    The presented PhD thesis deals with the development of new modelling approaches and application procedures to simulate the impact of land use change (LUC) on soil fertility, carbon sequestration and mitigation of soil erosion and sediment deposition under data-limited conditions, using three mountainous watersheds in Northern Thailand, Northern and North-western Vietnam as case study areas. The first study investigated if qualitative datasets derived during participatory processes can be used to parameterize the spatially-explicit, soil fertility-driven FALLOW (Forest, Agroforest, Low-value Landscape Or Wasteland?) model. Participatory evaluations with different stakeholder groups were conducted in a case study village of Northwest Vietnam to generate model input datasets. A local colour-based soil quality classification system was successfully integrated into the FALLOW soil module to test scenarios how current or improved crop management would impact the evolution of upland soil fertility levels. The scenario analysis suggested a masking effect of ongoing soil fertility decline by using fertilizers and hybrid crop varieties, indicating a resource overuse that becomes increasingly irreversible without external interventions. Simulations further suggested that the success rate of improved cropping management methods becomes less effective with increasing soil degradation levels and cannot fully restore initial soil fertility. The second case study examined the effects of LUC on the provisioning of long-term carbon sinks illustrated for a case study watershed in Northern Thailand. Based on land use history data, participatory appraisals and expert interviews, a scenario analysis was conducted with the Dyna-CLUE (Dynamic and Conversion of Land use Effects) model to simulate different LUC trajectories in 2009 to 2029. The scenario analysis demonstrated a strong influence of external factors such as cash crop demands and nature conservation strategies on the spatial evolution of land use patterns at watershed-scale. Coupling scenario-specific LUC maps with a carbon accounting procedure further revealed that depending on employed time-averaged input datasets, up to 1.7 Gg above-ground carbon (AGC) could be built-up by increasing reforestation or orchard areas until 2029. In contrast, a loss of 0.4 Gg in AGC stocks would occur, if current LUC trends would be continued until 2029. Coupled model computations further revealed that the uncertainty of estimated AGC stocks is larger than the expected LUC scenario effects as a function of employed AGC input dataset. The third case study examined the impact of land use change on soil erosion and sediment deposition patterns in a small watershed of mountainous Northern Vietnam using a newly developed dynamic and spatially-explicit erosion and sediment deposition model (ERODEP), which was further coupled with the LUCIA (Land Use Change Impact Assessment) model building on its hydrological and vegetation growth routines. Employing available field datasets for a period of four years, ERODEP-LUCIA simulated reasonably well soil erosion and sediment deposition patterns following the annual variations in land use and rainfall regimes. Output validation (i.e. Modelling Efficiency=EF) revealed satisfying to good simulation results, i.e. plot-scale soil loss under upland swiddening (EF: 0.60-0.86) and sediment delivery rates in monitored streamflow (EF: 0.44-0.93). Cumulative sediment deposition patterns in lowland paddy fields were simulated fairly well (EF: 0.66), but showed limitations in adequately predicting silt fractions along a spatial gradient in a lowland monitoring site. In conclusion, data-limited conditions are a common feature of many tropical environments such as Northern Thailand and Northern/North-western Vietnam. Environmental modellers, decision makers and stakeholders have to be aware of the trade-offs between model complexity, input demands, and output reliability. It is not necessarily the challenge of data-limitations, but rather the decision from the very beginning if the aim is to develop a new model tool or to use existing model structures to support environmental decision making. Future modelling-based investigations in data-limited areas should combine scientifically-based approaches with participatory procedures, because scientific assessment can support environmental policy making, but stakeholders’ decision will finally determine the provisioning of ecosystem functions in the long run. A generic assessment framework is proposed as synthesis of this study to employ dynamic and spatially-explicit models to examine the impact of LUC on ecosystem functions. The application of such a generic framework is especially useful in data-limited environments such as Mountainous Mainland Southeast Asia, as it not only provides guidance during the modelling process, but also supports the prioritisation of input data demands and reduces fieldwork needs to a minimum.
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    Vulnerability and risk management of rural farm households in Northern Vietnam
    (2010) Fischer, Isabel; Heidhues, Franz
    Despite the achievements of the ?doi moi? reform process, which was launched in 1986, Vietnam is still one of the poorest countries in the world, with 28.9 per cent of the total population (85 million in 2007) living below the national poverty line (UNDP 2007). Especially the mountainous, rural areas of Northern Vietnam are underdeveloped. Poor and near-poor farm households endure manifold risks and income shocks, which threaten their existence. Normally, insurance systems would step in to assist. In developing countries however, where access to formal insurance services is hardly available, rural farm households have developed alternative risk management strategies. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) of the Department for International Development (DFID 1999), was applied as an analytical tool to identify and assess risks and risk management strategies of vulnerable rural livelihoods in the Uplands of Northern Vietnam. The role of informal social networks was analyzed with the help of Social Network Analysis (SNA). An Adaptative Conjoint Analysis (ACA) was implemented to examine the potential demand for a formal or semi-formal microinsurance scheme in the area of livestock insurance. Furthermore, additional insights were gained from interdisciplinary research on issues of human, health and livelihood security, as well as from case studies on natural resource use in Southeast Asia. The central hypotheses of this research on livelihood strategies in general and adaptive strategies such as insurance in particular are that they (1) have the potential to reduce livelihood vulnerability and that (2) the differentiated knowledge of livelihood strategies is crucial for a better understanding of the reasoning behind the exploitation of livelihood assets, such as natural resources or physical assets in the form of livestock, despite the negative medium and long-term effects. Research results lead to the following conclusions: First of all, only a very elaborate use of existing capital assets can improve the livelihood situation of vulnerable households in Northern Vietnam. Living in remote mountainous regions with scarce natural resources and limited access to other assets, the preconditions are rather difficult for ethnic minority people, even more for women. Secondly, in order to improve the situation, all stakeholders have to be aware of the existing risk management strategies (e.g. raising livestock and selling it in case of a livelihood emergency is one of the most popular risk coping strategies in the mountainous regions of Northern Vietnam) and learn from both, advantages and disadvantages of currently applied strategies to translate them into effective policies. Concerning the access to financial services, people still face several constraints, as credits are often not available for certain activities or at a certain point in time. In addition, savings and insurance services, when available are not adapted to the needs. Furthermore, emerging expenditures for livelihood risks usually go beyond the scope of the dis-saving (in cash and in kind) ability of rural households. Taking into consideration the above stated situation of changing agricultural activities, including higher input use, and the resulting decline in the number of large ruminants, one should be very careful not to destroy the so far still functioning traditional social networks. Even though these networks are not able to fully buffer all shocks and crises, they are at least one asset (social capital asset) that is initially accessible by everybody and quite often a means to compensate to some degree the lack of other capital assets as depicted in the SLF. Research results point to a number of policy issues that need to be addressed if household?s vulnerability to poverty is to be significantly reduced among ethnic minority households in Northern Vietnam. First of all, poverty reduction strategies and programs need to consider a broader target group, not only the currently poor but also the vulnerable households. The promotion of innovative financial products, such as a combination of credit and insurance, especially for loans that are taken up to purchase livestock, is considered a successful approach to support vulnerable households. Finally, it is assumed that an efficient and accessible health care system would be an important alternative for securing livelihoods. In addition, im¬pro¬ved extension services and knowledge transfer for all people, especially women, could sup¬port a sustainable future development of ethnic minority households and therefore, in the long-run, lead to poverty alleviation.